Usability of the login authentication process: passphrases and passwords

Purpose The average employee spends a total of 18.6 h every two months on password-related activities, including password retries and resets. The problem is caused by the user forgetting or mistyping the password (usually because of character switching). The source of this issue is that while a password containing combinations of lowercase characters, uppercase characters, digits and special characters (LUDS) offers a reasonable level of security, it is complex to type and/or memorise, which prolongs the user authentication process. This results in much time being spent for no benefit (as perceived by users), as the user authentication process is merely a prerequisite for whatever a user intends to accomplish. This study aims to address this issue, passphrases that exclude the LUDS guidelines are proposed. Design/methodology/approach To discover constructs that create security and to investigate usability concerns relating to the memory and typing issues concerning passphrases, this study was guided by three theories as follows: Shannon's entropy theory was used to assess security, chunking theory to analyse memory issues and the keystroke level model to assess typing issues. These three constructs were then evaluated against passwords and passphrases to determine whether passphrases better address the security and usability issues related to text-based user authentication. A content analysis was performed to identify common password compositions currently used. A login assessment experiment was used to collect data on user authentication and user - system interaction with passwords and passphrases in line with the constructs that have an impact on user authentication issues related to security, memory and typing. User-system interaction data was collected from a purposeful sample size of 112 participants, logging in at least once a day for 10 days. An expert review, which comprised usability and security experts with specific years of industry and/or academic experience, was also used to validate results and conclusions. All the experts were given questions and content to ensure sufficient context was provided and relevant feedback was obtained. A pilot study involving 10 participants (experts in security and/or usability) was performed on the login assessment website and the content was given to the experts beforehand. Both the website and the expert review content was refined after feedback was received from the pilot study. Findings It was concluded that, overall, passphrases better support the user during the user authentication process in terms of security, memory issues and typing issues. Originality/value This research aims at promoting the use of a specific type of passphrase instead of complex passwords. Three core aspects need to be assessed in conjunction with each other (security, memorisation and typing) to determine whether user-friendly passphrases can support user authentication better than passwords.