Biogeochemical controls on ammonium accumulation in the surface layer of the Southern Ocean

The production and removal of ammonium (NH4+) are essential upper-ocean nitrogen cycle pathways, yet in the Southern Ocean where NH4+ has been observed to accumulate in surface waters, its mixed-layer cycling remains poorly understood. For surface seawater samples collected between Cape Town and the Marginal Ice Zone in winter 2017, we found that NH4+ concentrations were 5-fold higher than is typical for summer and lower north than south of the Subantarctic Front (0.01-0.26 mu M versus 0.19-0.70 mu M). Our observations confirm that NH4+ accumulates in the Southern Ocean's winter mixed layer, particularly in polar waters. NH4+ assimilation rates were highest near the Polar Front (12.9 +/- 0.4 nM d(-1)) and in the Subantarctic Zone (10.0 +/- 1.5 nM d(-1)), decreasing towards the Marginal Ice Zone (3.0 +/- 0.8 nM d(-1)) despite the high ambient NH4+ concentrations in these southernmost waters, likely due to the low temperatures and limited light availability. By contrast, rates of NH4+ oxidation were higher south than north of the Polar Front (16.0 +/- 0.8 versus 11.1 +/- 0.5 nM d(-1)), perhaps due to the lower-light and higher-iron conditions characteristic of polar waters. NH4+ concentrations were also measured along five transects of the Southern Ocean (Subtropical Zone to Marginal Ice Zone) spanning the 2018/19 annual cycle. These measurements reveal that mixed-layer NH4+ accumulation south of the Subantarctic Front derives from sustained heterotrophic NH4+ production in late summer through winter that, in net, outpaces NH4+ removal by temperature-, light-, and iron-limited microorganisms. Our observations thus imply that the Southern Ocean becomes a biological source of CO2 to the atmosphere in autumn and winter not only because nitrate drawdown is weak but also because the ambient conditions favour net heterotrophy and NH4+ accumulation.