The path to the clinic: a comprehensive review on direct KRAS G12C inhibitors

The RAS oncogene is both the most frequently mutated oncogene in human cancer and the first confirmed human oncogene to be discovered in 1982. After decades of research, in 2013, the Shokat lab achieved a seminal breakthrough by showing that the activated KRAS isozyme caused by the G12C mutation in the KRAS gene can be directly inhibited via a newly unearthed switch II pocket. Building upon this groundbreaking discovery, sotorasib (AMG510) obtained approval by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 2021 to become the first therapy to directly target the KRAS oncoprotein in any KRAS-mutant cancers, particularly those harboring the KRAS G12C mutation. Adagrasib (MRTX849) and other direct KRAS G12C inhibitors are currently being investigated in multiple clinical trials. In this review, we delve into the path leading to the development of this novel KRAS inhibitor, starting with the discovery, structure, and function of the RAS family of oncoproteins. We then examine the clinical relevance of KRAS, especially the KRAS G12C mutation in human cancer, by providing an in-depth analysis of its cancer epidemiology. Finally, we review the preclinical evidence that supported the initial development of the direct KRAS G12C inhibitors and summarize the ongoing clinical trials of all direct KRAS G12C inhibitors.