Wind stilling-reversal across Sweden: The impact of land-use and large-scale atmospheric circulation changes

This study analyses for the first time the break in the stilling detected by previous research around 2010, with focus in Sweden using homogenized near-surface mean and gust wind speed observations for 1997-2019. During the recent past two decades, both mean and gust wind magnitude and frequency (exceeding the 90th percentile) underwent nonlinear changes, driven by the dominant winter variability. In particular, consistent with previous studies, the significant (p < .05) stilling ceased in 2003, followed by no clear trend afterwards. The detected stilling-reversal is linked to large-scale atmospheric circulation changes, in particular to the North Atlantic Oscillation for both mean and gust wind changes, and the intensity changes of extratropical cyclones passing across Sweden especially for wind gusts. Furthermore, in different wind change phases, the observed wind distribution did not vary uniformly for the various wind speed ranges; instead, strong winds drove most of the changes. In the same way, increases in gust winds are greater compared to changes in mean wind speed conditions. The stilling-reversal is also identified by the ERA5 reanalysis, where large-scale atmospheric circulation changes are captured. But the background slowdown detected in most stations does not appear in the ERA5 data as the observed increase in forest cover is not considered in the reanalysis. This study reveals that, in addition to the large-scale interannual variability, changes in surface roughness (e.g., changes in forest cover) contribute to the observed wind variability across Sweden.