Challenging parenting behavior in ethnically diverse two-parent families in the United States: Association with infants’ social competence and behavior problems

•Challenging parenting behaviors (CPB) challenge children to go beyond their zone of comfort in a playful, encouraging manner. Research with middle class White families has shown that fathers’ CPB is associated with reduced anxiety in children.•In our low-income ethnically diverse US sample, mothers and fathers of infants engage in CPB at similar levels.•CPB was not associated with infants’ social competence and behavior problems at 12 months, suggesting that among ethnic minority parents the function of CPB may vary.•This study shows the need for more research understanding the normative development of infant development and parenting in diverse families.