Rapid Glacier Shrinkage And Glacial Lake Expansion Of A China-Nepal Transboundary Catchment In The Central Himalayas, Between 1964 And 2020

Climate warming and concomitant glacier recession in the High Mountain Asia (HMA) have led to widespread development and expansion of glacial lakes, which reserved the freshwater resource, but also may increase risks of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) or debris floods. Using 46 moderate- and high-resolution satellite images, including declassified Keyhole and Landsat missions between 1964 and 2020, we provide a comprehensive area mapping of glaciers and glacial lakes in the Tama Koshi (Rongxer) basin, a highly glacierized China-Nepal transnational catchment in the central Himalayas with high potential risks of glacier-related hazards. Results show that the 329.2 +/- 1.9 km(2) total area of 271 glaciers in the region has decreased by 26.2 +/- 3.2 km(2) in the past 56 years. During 2000-2016, remarkable ice mass loss caused the mean glacier surface elevation to decrease with a rate of -0.63 m a(-1), and the mean glacier surface velocity slowed by similar to 25% between 1999 and 2015. The total area of glacial lakes increased by 9.2 +/- 0.4 km(2) (similar to 180%) from 5.1 +/- 0.1 km(2) in 1964 to 14.4 +/- 0.3 km(2) in 2020, while ice-contacted proglacial lakes have a much higher expansion rate (similar to 204%). Large-scale glacial lakes are developed preferentially and experienced rapid expansion on the east side of the basin, suggesting that in addition to climate warming, the glacial geomorphological characters (aspect and slope) are also key controlling factors of the lake growing process. We hypothesize that lake expansion will continue in some cases until critical local topography (i.e., steepening icefall) is reached, but the lake number may not necessarily increase. Further monitoring should be focused on eight rapidly expanding proglacial lakes due to their high potential risks of failure and relatively high lake volumes.