Microbiota entrapped in recently-formed ice: Paradana Ice Cave, Slovenia

Paradana is one of the biggest ice caves in Slovenia, with an estimated ice volume of 8,000 m 3 . Reflecting climatological conditions, the cave ice undergoes repeated freeze-thaw cycles and regular yearly deposition of fresh ice. Three distinct ice block samples, collected from the frozen lake in May 2016, were analysed to obtain data on ice physicochemical properties and the composition of associated microbiota. Isotopic composition of the ice samples ( 18 O, 2 H) and a local meteoric water line (LMWL) constructed for monthly precipitation at Postojna were used to estimate the isotopic composition of the water that formed the ice, which had high values of deuterium excess and low concentrations of chloride, sulphate and nitrate. The values of total organic carbon (1.93–3.95 mg/l) within the ice blocks fall within the range of those measured in karst streams. Total cell count in the ice was high and the proportion of cell viability increased along the depth gradient and ranged from 4.67 × 10 4 to 1.52 × 10 5 cells/ml and from 51.0 to 85.4%, respectively. Proteobacteria represented the core of the cave-ice microbiome (55.9–79.1%), and probably play an essential role in this ecosystem. Actinobacteria was the second most abundant phylum (12.0–31.4%), followed in abundance by Bacteroidetes (2.8–4.3%). Ice phylotypes recorded amounted to 442 genera, but only 43 genera had abundances greater than 0.5%. Most abundant were Pseudomonas , a well-known ice dweller, and Lysobacter , which previously was not reported in this context. Finally, two xanthophytes, Chloridella glacialis and Ellipsoidion perminimum , known from polar environments, were cultured from the ice. This indicates that the abundance and ecological role of phototrophs in such environments might be greater than previously deduced.