Development of microsatellite markers for Diaphanosoma dubium ( Crustacea , Cladocera ) and application to seasonal population dynamics

Diaphanosoma , the “tropical Daphnia” , is common and ubiquitous in South China. Like other ctenopods, Diaphanosoma has a reproductive mode similar to Daphnia ’s, but its resting eggs are rarely observed and lack an ephippium. With limited dispersal and reduced buffer effect from resting egg banks, Diaphanosoma is expected to have a population genetic structure different from that of temperate Daphnia . To facilitate genetic comparison, we developed microsatellite markers using next-generation sequencing for the most common species in tropical and subtropical East Asia, Diaphanosoma dubium . Thirty-one polymorphic microsatellite markers were obtained, and 29 of them were efficient for the congeneric species D. excisum , D. orghidani , D. mongolianum and D. chankensis . The markers allowed intra- and interspecific genetic analysis, including population structure, hybridization and introgression. We used 11 selected microsatellite markers to analyze spatial and temporal heterogeneity of genetic diversity in four (sub)tropical D. dubium populations from two large reservoirs and two temporary ponds. In contrast to temperate Cladocera, higher genetic diversity in summer rather than in spring suggested weak contribution from resting eggs in spring. Clustering of DAPC and STRUCTURE analyses indicated a clear-cut genetic structure in the four populations. Variation partitioning revealed that water storage and depth were key factors in genetic differentiation. Within large reservoirs, we detected backward (reversing time) gene flow from resting egg banks. We conclude that resting eggs have an effective contribution to the genetic diversity in large water bodies during growing seasons and that large water bodies can host higher genetic diversity in summer due to environmental heterogeneity and high carrying capacity. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of genetic diversity detected by our microsatellite markers showed the newly developed markers can be applied for further study of populations of D. dubium and other species of Diaphanosoma at a contemporary scale.