MINERVA-DE: An instance model of the deficient processing theory

•Deficient processing explains the repetition decrement effect and spacing effect.•Spacing affects the repetition decrement effect: poor memory of repeated items.•Repeated experience increases familiarity; familiarity impairs attention and memory.•Familiarity decreases with intervening study, allowing better memory of repetitions.•Computer model of this theory successfully predicts many memory effects.