A Focused Update on Tardive Dyskinesia.

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a delayed and potentially irreversible motor complication following chronic exposure to centrally acting dopamine receptor antagonists, mainly of the class of antipsychotics drugs. New generations of antipsychotic drugs reduced its mean prevalence to 20%, but it continues to mar the drug experience and social integration in a significant fraction of patients. The underlying molecular cascade remains elusive, explaining in part why TD management is so often difficult. Protocol variations between experimental laboratories and inter-species differences in the biological response to antipsychotic drugs have added layers of complexity. The traditional dopamine D2 receptor supersensitivity hypothesis was revisited in an experimental nonhuman primate model. Findings in the striatum revealed a strong upregulation of D3, not D2, receptors specific to dyskinetic animals, and indirect evidence suggestive of a link between overactivation of glycogen synthase kinase-3β signaling and TD. New effective vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 inhibitors alleviating TD have been approved in the USA. They were integrated to an emerging stepwise treatment algorithm for troublesome TD, which also includes consideration for changes in the current antipsychotic drug regimen and recognition of potentially aggravating factors such as anticholinergic co-medications. These advances may benefit TD.