Three-dimensional printing as a tool in otolaryngology training: a systematic review.

Objective Three-dimensional printing is a revolutionary technology that is disrupting the status quo in surgery. It has been rapidly adopted by otolaryngology as a tool in surgical simulation for high-risk, low-frequency procedures. This systematic review comprehensively evaluates the contemporary usage of three-dimensional printed otolaryngology simulators. Method A systematic review of the literature was performed with narrative synthesis. Results Twenty-two articles were identified for inclusion, describing models that span a range of surgical tasks (temporal bone dissection, airway procedures, functional endoscopic sinus surgery and endoscopic ear surgery). Thirty-six per cent of articles assessed construct validity (objective measures); the other 64 per cent only assessed face and content validity (subjective measures). Most studies demonstrated positive feedback and high confidence in the models' value as additions to the curriculum. Conclusion Whilst further studies supported with objective metrics are merited, the role of three-dimensional printed otolaryngology simulators is poised to expand in surgical training given the enthusiastic reception from trainees and experts alike.