Female responses to genetically modified foods: Effects of the menstrual cycle and food risk concerns

Despite widespread adoption of genetically modified (GM) agriculture and the sale of GM foods, consumers are still apprehensive about it. This paper identifies menstrual cycle as a novel factor influencing consumer attitudes towards GM foods. We propose that female consumers lower their evaluations of GM foods in the luteal phase compared with the early follicular phase and ovulatory phase, as the salience of food risk concerns rises in the luteal phase. We conducted four studies and one single-paper meta-analysis to test this basic effect and the underlying mechanism of perceived risk of GM foods through a tracking survey, real food tasting, and scenario evaluation. The findings contribute to the literature of consumer attitudes to GM foods by identifying a unique influencing factor, and also reveal that during the luteal phase female consumers do not just seek more food but also avoid certain types of food.