The rapid microwave-assisted hydrothermal synthesis of NASICON-structured Na3V2O2x(PO4)(2)F3-2x (0 < x <= 1) cathode materials for Na-ion batteries

NASICON-structured Na3V2O2x(PO4)(2)F3-2x (0 < x <= 1) solid solutions have been prepared using a microwave-assisted hydrothermal (MW-HT) technique. Well-crystallized phases were obtained for x = 1 and 0.4 by reacting V2O5, NH4H2PO4, and NaF precursors at temperatures as low as 180-200 degrees C for less than 15 min. Various available and inexpensive reducing agents were used to control the vanadium oxidation state and final product morphology. The vanadium oxidation state and O/F ratios were assessed using electron energy loss spectroscopy and infrared spectroscopy. According to electron diffraction and powder X-ray diffraction, the Na3V2O2x(PO4)(2)F3-2x solid solutions crystallized in a metastable disordered I4/mmm structure (a = 6.38643(4) angstrom, c = 10.62375(8) angstrom for Na3V2O2(PO4)(2)F and a = 6.39455(5) angstrom, c = 10.6988(2) angstrom for Na3V2O0.8(PO4)(2)F-2.2). With respect to electrochemical Na+ (de)insertion as positive electrodes (cathodes) for Na-ion batteries, the as-synthesized materials displayed two sloping plateaus upon charge and discharge, centered near 3.5-3.6 V and 4.0-4.1 V vs. Na+/Na, respectively, with a reversible capacity of similar to 110 mA h g(-1). The application of a conducting carbon coating through the surface polymerization of dopamine with subsequent annealing at 500 degrees C improved both the rate capability (similar to 55 mA h g(-1) at a discharge rate of 10C) and capacity retention (similar to 93% after 50 cycles at a discharge rate of C/2).