Assessing the dyadic social relationships of female african (Loxodonta africana) and asian (Elephas maximus) zoo elephants using proximity, tactile contact, and keeper surveys

•Elephants spent less time and were more variable in expressing tactile contact than proximity.•Keepers had excellent levels of agreement in rating elephant bond strength.•More time and consistency in proximity by elephants predicted “strong or strongest bond” ratings by keepers.