Transverse mode confinement in lithographic VCSELs

Index confinement is studied experimentally and through modelling for lithographic vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) and contrasted with other types of VCSELs. Modelling shows that the index confinement is set by the height of a shallow internal mesa that produces the optical mode confinement. Overgrowth with a semiconductor mirror enables a range of index confinement from zero (no ...