IL-36γ signaling controls the induced regulatory T cell–Th9 cell balance via NFκB activation and STAT transcription factors

Regulatory and effector T helper (Th) cells are abundant at mucosal surfaces, especially in the intestine, where they control the critical balance between tolerance and inflammation. However, the key factors that reciprocally dictate differentiation along these specific lineages remain incompletely understood. Here we report that the interleukin-1 (IL-1) family member IL-36γ signals through IL-36 receptor, myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88, and nuclear factor-κBp50 in CD4 + T cells to potently inhibit Foxp3-expressing induced regulatory T cell (T reg ) development, while concomitantly promoting the differentiation of Th9 cells via a IL-2-STAT5- (signal transducer and activator of transcription factor 5) and IL-4-STAT6-dependent pathway. Consistent with these findings, mice deficient in IL-36γ were protected from Th cell–driven intestinal inflammation and exhibited increased colonic T reg cells and diminished Th9 cells. Our findings thus reveal a fundamental contribution for the IL-36/IL-36R axis in regulating the T reg –Th9 cell balance with broad implications for Th cell–mediated disorders, such as inflammatory bowel diseases and particularly ulcerative colitis.