Variations in subjective culture: A comparison of females and males in three settings

This article examines differences in subjective culture among three societies that vary in their extent of urbanization and differentiation and within these societies between females and males. David Bakan's agency-communion and Talcott Parsons' instrumental-expressive distinctions are used to capture both these ruralurban and male-female differences using data collected with Harry Triandis' antecedent-consequent method of studying subjective culture. Both between-society and within-society differences in subjective culture are found, although they occur independently of each other. Cross-cultural differences are stronger for concepts dealing with group life, and sex differences are stronger for concepts regarding individual actions and self-orientations. Specifications and extensions of existing theory, as well as directions for future research, are suggested.