A 100 fps, Time-Correlated Single-Photon-Counting-Based Fluorescence-Lifetime Imager in 130 nm CMOS.

A fully-integrated single-photon avalanche diode ( SPAD) and time-to-digital converter ( TDC) array for high-speed fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy ( FLIM) in standard 130 nm CMOS is presented. This imager is comprised of an array of 64-by-64 SPADs each with an independent TDC for performing time-correlated single-photon counting ( TCSPC) at each pixel. The TDCs use a delay-locked-loop-based architecture and achieve a 62.5 ps resolution with up to a 64 ns range. A data-compression datapath is designed to transfer TDC data to off-chip buffers, which can support a data rate of up to 42 Gbps. These features, combined with a system implementation that leverages a x4 PCIe-cabled interface, allow for demonstrated FLIM imaging rates at up to 100 frames per second.